What Is Lysine? Other Names: Hydrochlorure de L-Lysine, Lisina, Lys

What is Lysine?

This post was written with Consensus AI Academic Search Engine – please read our Disclaimer at the end of this article. Lysine is an essential amino acid that plays a crucial role in various biological processes. It cannot be synthesized by higher organisms, including humans, and must be obtained through diet. This article explores the importance of lysine, its metabolic pathways, and its impact on growth and development in different organisms. Other names include: Hydrochlorure de L-Lysine, L-2,6-diaminohexanoic acid, L-Lysine, L-Lysine HCl, L-Lysine Hydrochloride, L-Lysine Monohydrochloride, Lisina, Lys, Lysine Hydrochloride, Lysine Monohydrochloride, Monochlohydrate de L-Lysine, Monochlohydrate de Lysine.

Importance of Lysine

Lysine is indispensable for protein synthesis and is often the first limiting amino acid in many diets, particularly those based on grains1 2. It is abundant in body proteins but limited in many food sources, making adequate dietary intake essential for maintaining health2 4.

Metabolic Pathways

Lysine metabolism involves several complex pathways. In mammals, the liver is the primary site of lysine catabolism, where it undergoes a series of reactions leading to the formation of acetyl-CoA2 4. The first step in lysine catabolism is the formation of saccharopine, followed by the production of 2-aminoadipic acid, which is then decarboxylated to form CoA esters2. Additionally, lysine can be metabolized by gut microflora, which can convert urea to ammonia and synthesize amino acids, including lysine2.

Role in Growth and Development

Lysine is critical for growth and development in various organisms. In pigs, dietary lysine affects amino acid metabolism and growth performance, with lysine deficiency leading to reduced growth rates and altered plasma concentrations of amino acids and metabolites1 10. In bovine mammary epithelial cells, lysine stimulates protein synthesis by promoting the expression of amino acid transporters and activating the mTOR pathway3. Similarly, in pubertal mice, lysine promotes mammary gland development through the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling axis6.

Lysine in Biotechnology

Lysine is also a significant biotechnological product. For instance, Corynebacterium glutamicum has been engineered to produce lysine from mannitol, a sugar alcohol derived from marine macroalgae. This innovative approach highlights the potential for sustainable lysine production using renewable resources7.

Lysine in Plants

In plants, lysine is not only a building block for proteins but also a precursor for glutamate, an important signaling amino acid. Recent studies have shown that lysine synthesis and catabolism are regulated by complex mechanisms, including intracellular compartmentalization and transcriptional controls. These insights could lead to the development of high-lysine crops, which are essential for improving the nutritional quality of plant-based foods9.

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Uses of Lysine

Protein Synthesis and Growth

Lysine promotes protein synthesis and cell viability in bovine mammary epithelial cells by enhancing the uptake of amino acids and activating the mTOR and JAK2-STAT5 pathways1.

Dietary lysine supplementation improves growth performance and skeletal muscle development in rabbits fed a low protein diet by regulating key signaling pathways such as mTOR5.

Lysine stimulates the development of mammary glands in pubertal mice through the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling axis, enhancing cell proliferation and protein synthesis8.

Food Safety and Antimicrobial Properties

Lysine inhibits the hemolytic activity of Staphylococcus aureus by interfering with the expression and oligomerization of the toxin Hla, suggesting its potential use as an anti-S. aureus preparation in the food industry2.

Nutritional Supplementation and Health Benefits

Lysine is essential for calcium absorption, muscle protein building, recovery from injuries, and the production of hormones, enzymes, and antibodies. It has been used in the treatment of various conditions such as herpes simplex virus infections, osteoporosis, anxiety, and migraines3.

Lysine biofortification in crops is crucial for preventing malnutrition, especially in developing countries where cereal crops are staple foods. Genetic modifications have successfully increased lysine content in crops like rice and maize6.

Cellular Function and Biomolecular Condensation

Lysine plays a significant role in cellular function by driving and regulating biomolecular condensation. It is enriched in disordered regions of proteins in P-bodies and forms dynamic lysine/RNA-coacervates, which are important for cellular biochemical reactions4.

Medical Applications

Lysine analogues are effective in reducing blood loss and transfusion requirements in cancer patients without increasing the risk of venous thromboembolism or other adverse events7.

Lysine acts as a partial serotonin receptor 4 antagonist, inhibiting serotonin-mediated intestinal pathologies and anxiety in animal models, suggesting its potential use in treating stress-induced anxiety and diarrhea9.

Plant Growth and Development

Lysine is a precursor for glutamate, an important signaling amino acid in plants. It regulates plant growth and responses to the environment through complex genetic, molecular, and biochemical mechanisms10.

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Adverse Effects of Lysine

Gastrointestinal Symptoms

Excessive lysine intake can cause gastrointestinal issues such as nausea, stomachache, and diarrhea. These symptoms were observed in both human and animal studies, with a provisional no-observed-adverse-effect level identified at 6.0 g/day for humans1 3.

Diarrhea

High doses of lysine (e.g., 64 g/day) can lead to severe but transient diarrhea in calves, indicating that lysine itself, rather than its hydrochloride form, is the cause2.

Hematological and Biochemical Changes

In rats, lysine supplementation affected body weight, food intake, and various blood parameters. Notable changes included lower serum albumin and leptin, higher LDL cholesterol, and altered blood urea nitrogen and serum pancreatic polypeptide levels7.

Renal and Hepatic Toxicity

High doses of lysine caused nephrotoxicity and hepatotoxicity in freshwater fish, suggesting potential risks for similar effects in humans at very high doses. Observed effects included glomerular hemorrhages and fatty degeneration in the liver8.

Nutritional Imbalance

In sows, low lysine intake increased muscle protein degradation and decreased insulin and estradiol levels, while high lysine intake increased serum urea nitrogen and insulin but did not affect reproductive hormones significantly5. In pigs, lysine deficiency compromised growth performance and altered plasma amino acid concentrations6.

No Significant Increase in Venous Thromboembolism

In cancer patients, lysine analogues did not show an increased risk of venous thromboembolism or other adverse events, although the safety data is limited9.

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How has Lysine Improved Patient Outcomes?

Diabetes Management

Lysine supplementation improved glycemic control, decreased protein glycation, and reduced insulin resistance in type 2 diabetic patients1.

Epilepsy Treatment

Lysine restriction in combination with pyridoxine therapy improved seizure control and developmental outcomes in children with pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy (PDE)2 3.

Schizophrenia Management

Lysine as an adjunctive treatment to antipsychotic medication showed a significant decrease in positive symptoms and improved cognitive functioning in patients with schizophrenia4 5.

Cancer Treatment

Lysine analogues effectively reduced blood loss and the need for transfusions in cancer patients without increasing the risk of venous thromboembolism or other adverse events6.

Sepsis and Lung Injury

Lysine treatment significantly reduced oxidative and inflammatory markers, improved antioxidant enzyme activities, and ameliorated lung tissue damage in sepsis-induced acute lung injury models7 10.

Cystic Fibrosis

Inhaled aztreonam lysine improved lung function and quality of life in cystic fibrosis patients experiencing acute pulmonary exacerbations8.

Glutaric Aciduria Type 1 (GA1)

A lysine-free, arginine-rich diet reduced neurological risk and improved biochemical outcomes in children with GA1 by limiting cerebral lysine influx9.

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Lysine Mechanisms of Action

Enzymatic Catalysis and Radical Intermediates

Lysine 5,6-aminomutase catalyzes the transformation of D-lysine and L-beta-lysine into other amino acids, involving a multistep mechanism with hydrogen transfer and radical intermediates. Pyridoxal-5′-phosphate (PLP) and adenosylcobalamin are essential cofactors1 6 7.

Radical stabilization is crucial, with specific residues like Tyr263α playing a role in stabilizing radical intermediates during the reaction6.

Lysine Catabolism

Lysine is catabolized into glutamate and other metabolites, which are important for stress responses and brain function. This process is regulated by metabolic pathways and can influence nerve transmission signals via glutamate receptors2.

Post-Translational Modifications (PTMs)

Lysine undergoes various PTMs, including acetylation, which regulates protein function and gene expression. These modifications are widespread and affect numerous cellular processes, such as chromatin remodeling and cell cycle regulation3 10.

Lysine acetylation can influence the susceptibility of proteins to other modifications like phosphorylation and ubiquitination, highlighting its regulatory scope3.

Lysine Oxidation

Lysyl oxidase catalyzes the oxidation of lysine residues in proteins, leading to the formation of crosslinks that stabilize collagen and elastin fibers. This process involves copper and a carbonyl cofactor4.

Antimicrobial Action

Epsilon-poly-L-lysine (ε-PL) exhibits antimicrobial properties by disrupting bacterial cell membranes. It interacts with negatively charged phospholipid head groups, leading to membrane destabilization and cell death5.

Allosteric Regulation

Lysine biosynthesis is regulated through feedback inhibition of enzymes like dihydrodipicolinate synthase (DHDPS). Lysine binding to the allosteric site induces conformational changes that inhibit enzyme activity8 9.

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Common Complaints Associated with Lysine Use

Gastrointestinal Symptoms

The most commonly reported adverse effects of lysine supplementation are gastrointestinal issues, including nausea, stomachache, and diarrhea2 3.

Risk analysis indicates that the incidence of these gastrointestinal symptoms is not statistically significant, with a risk ratio of 1.02, suggesting no significant increase in risk2 3.

Safety Threshold

The provisional no-observed-adverse-effect level for lysine in healthy humans is identified at 6.0 g/day, based on gastrointestinal symptoms2 3.

Positive Health Effects

Lysine supplementation has been shown to reduce diarrheal morbidity in children and respiratory morbidity in men, indicating some beneficial health effects1.

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Disclaimer

The content presented in this blog is generated by Consensus, an AI-powered academic search engine, and is based on publicly available scientific literature. While every effort is made to provide accurate, up-to-date, and well-researched information, the content is intended for informational and educational purposes only. It does not constitute medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always consult a qualified healthcare professional before making any decisions regarding medical conditions, treatments, or medications. The AI system’s analysis may not cover all perspectives, emerging research, or individual cases, and it is not a substitute for professional expertise. Neither the blog publisher nor the developers of the AI-powered search engine are responsible for any actions taken based on the information provided in this content. Use of this information is at your own risk. Citations to the original scientific studies are included for reference, but these studies should be reviewed in full and interpreted with the guidance of a healthcare or research professional.

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