High risk human papillomavirus hpv
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High-Risk Human Papillomavirus (HPV): Oncogenesis, Clinical Implications, and Biomarkers
Introduction to High-Risk HPV and Oncogenesis
High-risk human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are a subset of HPVs that are strongly associated with the development of several types of cancers, most notably cervical cancer. The viral oncogenes E6 and E7 play a crucial role in the oncogenic process by targeting key cellular pathways. E6 and E7 disrupt the functions of tumor suppressor proteins p53 and pRb, respectively, leading to uncontrolled cell proliferation and carcinogenesis. Additionally, these oncogenes can influence other cellular factors, including those involved in epigenetic regulation and splicing, further contributing to cancer development.
HPV and Cervical Cancer
Cervical cancer is the most prominent cancer linked to high-risk HPV infection. The integration of the HPV genome into the host genome is a critical step in the persistent expression of viral oncogenes, which drives the progression from infection to cancer. A meta-analysis of 115,789 HPV-positive women revealed that HPV16, 18, and 45 are particularly significant in the progression from cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) to invasive cervical cancer (ICC). HPV16 is the most prevalent type, showing a steep increase in positivity from low-grade lesions to invasive cancers.
HPV and Head and Neck Cancers
High-risk HPVs, particularly HPV16, are also implicated in a subset of head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCCs), especially those arising in the oropharynx . HPV-positive HNSCCs are characterized by distinct molecular and clinical features, including a better prognosis compared to HPV-negative HNSCCs . These cancers are less likely to occur in heavy smokers and drinkers and often present with a basaloid morphology and fewer TP53 mutations. The presence of HPV DNA in salivary samples has been proposed as a non-invasive biomarker for detecting and monitoring HPV-driven head and neck cancers.
HPV and Other Cancers
Emerging evidence suggests that high-risk HPVs may also play a role in other cancers, such as lung cancer, although this association remains controversial due to variable detection rates and low viral loads in lung carcinomas. The potential mechanisms include HPV acting as an independent carcinogen in non-smokers or cooperating with tobacco smoke carcinogens in smokers.
HPV in Immunocompromised Individuals
Immunocompromised individuals, including those with primary immunodeficiencies or HIV infection, are at a higher risk of persistent HPV infection and subsequent cancer development. The immune system's inability to clear the virus effectively leads to persistent, treatment-refractory disease. Current treatments for HPV-related cancers in these populations include surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, with ongoing research into RNA-based therapies and therapeutic vaccines.
Exploiting Host Repair Pathways
High-risk HPVs exploit host DNA damage response pathways to facilitate their replication and persistence. The activation of ATM and ATR pathways is essential for viral replication and contributes to the maintenance of genomic integrity in host cells. Understanding these interactions may provide new therapeutic targets for treating HPV infections and preventing cancer progression.
Conclusion
High-risk HPVs are significant etiological agents in various cancers, with the most substantial impact seen in cervical and oropharyngeal cancers. The viral oncogenes E6 and E7 disrupt critical cellular pathways, leading to uncontrolled cell proliferation and cancer. The detection of HPV DNA in salivary samples offers a promising non-invasive biomarker for HPV-driven head and neck cancers. Continued research into the mechanisms of HPV-mediated carcinogenesis and the development of targeted therapies is essential for improving outcomes in affected individuals, particularly those who are immunocompromised.
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