How to regulate hormones
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How to Regulate Hormones: Insights from Recent Research
Thyroid Hormone Regulation and Metabolism
Thyroid Hormone (TH) and Metabolic Control
Thyroid hormones (TH), including thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), play a crucial role in regulating metabolism. The conversion of T4 to the active T3 by 5'-deiodinase type 2 (D2) is essential for metabolic regulation. D2 is expressed in various tissues such as the hypothalamus, white fat, brown adipose tissue (BAT), and skeletal muscle, and is necessary for adaptive thermogenesis. The thyroid gland's activity is controlled by thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), with feedback mechanisms involving nutritional signals like leptin and peptides that regulate appetite. Additionally, TH signaling integrates with the adrenergic nervous system both peripherally and centrally, influencing cholesterol and carbohydrate metabolism, hepatic insulin sensitivity, and gluconeogenesis suppression1.
Growth Hormone Regulation
Transcriptional and Posttranscriptional Regulation
Growth hormone (GH) production and release are under complex hormonal control. GH is stimulated by glucocorticoids and thyroid hormones, which enhance GH gene transcription. Conversely, somatostatin inhibits GH release, while growth hormone-releasing factor (GRF) stimulates it. Recent findings indicate that human pancreatic GRF (hpGRF) can stimulate both GH gene transcription and GH release, highlighting the intricate regulation of GH biosynthesis and secretion2.
Central Regulation and Metabolic Effects
GH also has significant effects on metabolism, including stimulating lipolysis in white adipose tissue and antagonizing insulin's effects on glycemic control. GH-responsive neurons in the brain, particularly in hypothalamic nuclei, play a role in regulating food intake, energy expenditure, and glycemia. These neurons help the brain adjust to metabolic stressors such as glucoprivation, food restriction, and physical exercise, indicating GH's role in maintaining energy homeostasis4.
Steroid Hormone Regulation
Gene Expression and mRNA Stability
Steroid hormones regulate gene expression by binding to hormone regulatory elements (HREs) in DNA. This binding can occur even without the hormone ligand, although the ligand influences the interaction kinetics. Steroid hormones also affect mRNA stability, creating autoregulatory feedback loops that either limit or augment hormonal responses. This regulation impacts a wide range of genes, including those involved in reproductive physiology, by altering the stability of mRNAs encoding hormone receptors and other critical proteins3 6.
Plant Hormone Regulation
Biosynthesis, Transport, and Crosstalk
Plant hormones, derived from various metabolic pathways, regulate growth and responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. Recent advances have identified receptors for major hormones, revealing the role of the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway in hormone signaling. Hormone signaling pathways interact at multiple levels, with crosstalk among different hormones modulating plant responses. For instance, salicylic acid (SA) and abscisic acid (ABA) pathways interact to regulate plant defense mechanisms against viruses, with SA often activating antiviral responses while ABA can have antagonistic effects5 8 9 10.
Conclusion
Regulating hormones involves complex mechanisms that integrate various signals and feedback loops. Thyroid hormones, growth hormones, and steroid hormones each have distinct pathways and regulatory elements that control their production, release, and action. In plants, hormone regulation involves intricate networks and crosstalk that fine-tune responses to environmental stimuli. Understanding these mechanisms can lead to new therapeutic targets for metabolic disorders and improved strategies for managing plant health.
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Most relevant research papers on this topic
Thyroid hormone regulation of metabolism.
Thyroid hormone regulates metabolism and has potential as a therapeutic target for metabolic disorders.
Highly CitedTranscriptional regulation of growth hormone gene expression by growth hormone-releasing factor
Human pancreatic growth hormone-releasing factor (hpGRF) stimulates growth hormone gene expression and release, providing a new polypeptide hormone regulation of growth hormone biosynthesis.
Highly CitedCentral Regulation of Metabolism by Growth Hormone
Growth hormone plays a crucial role in regulating food intake, energy expenditure, and glycemia in the brain, promoting energy homeostasis.
Plant hormones are versatile chemical regulators of plant growth.
Plant hormones play a crucial role in regulating plant growth and development, with new discoveries revealing their biosynthesis, transport, perception, and response.
Highly CitedSteroid Hormones Regulate Gene Expression Posttranscriptionally by Altering the Stabilities of Messenger RNAs
Steroid hormones regulate gene expression by altering the stability of messenger RNAs, impacting the expression of a large population of genes and potentially offering new therapeutic approaches for hormone control.
Highly CitedThe Growth Hormone Receptor: Mechanism of Receptor Activation, Cell Signaling, and Physiological Aspects
Growth hormone receptor activation and signaling play crucial roles in regulating metabolism, aging, and cancer development, with potential implications for pharmacological treatment.
Highly CitedRoles of plant hormones in the regulation of host–virus interactions
Hormones play a crucial role in regulating plant-virus interactions, with their complex networks influencing responses to various stresses and influencing the fine-tuning of viral and plant systems.
Literature ReviewHighly CitedDifferent Plant Hormones Regulate Similar Processes through Largely Nonoverlapping Transcriptional Responses
Different plant hormones do not share a core transcriptional growth-regulatory module in young Arabidopsis seedlings, as they regulate distinct protein families.
Highly CitedMultiple levels of crosstalk in hormone networks regulating plant defense
Hormone crosstalk in plant defense networks plays a crucial role in tailoring responses to diverse microbes and insects, providing robustness and specificity in defense responses.
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