Dietary sources of vitamin D
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Main Dietary Sources of Vitamin D
Vitamin D can be obtained from both animal and plant-based foods, but only a few foods naturally contain significant amounts. The richest natural dietary sources are oily fish (such as salmon, mackerel, and sardines), fish liver oils, and to a lesser extent, eggs (especially the yolk), offal (like liver), and some types of meat. Dairy products like milk and cheese contain low levels of vitamin D unless they are fortified, with butter being an exception due to its higher fat content. Fortified foods, such as margarine, milk, yogurt, breakfast cereals, orange juice, and plant-based beverages, are also important contributors, especially in regions where natural sources are limited or dietary habits restrict intake of animal products Kučan2018Benedik2021Benson2021+3 MORE.
Plant-Based and Novel Sources of Vitamin D
Mushrooms are a notable plant-based source of vitamin D, particularly when exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light, which increases their vitamin D2 content. Some wild mushrooms and UV-exposed cultivated mushrooms can provide substantial amounts of vitamin D, making them a valuable option for vegetarians and vegans. Recent research has also explored the potential of genetically modified tomatoes and the use of UV irradiation to enhance vitamin D content in various foods, including yeasts and eggs Benedik2021Wei2023Starck2024.
Vitamin D Fortification and Supplementation
Because it is difficult to meet recommended vitamin D intake through diet alone, especially in populations with limited sun exposure or dietary restrictions, food fortification and supplementation are widely recommended. Fortified foods can contain either vitamin D2 or D3, and their inclusion in the diet has been shown to help address widespread vitamin D deficiency. Supplements are particularly important in regions with low sunlight or for individuals at higher risk of deficiency, such as children, older adults, and those with limited outdoor activity Kučan2018Benedik2021Benson2021+2 MORE.
Factors Affecting Dietary Vitamin D Intake
The amount of vitamin D in foods can vary based on factors such as animal diet, food processing, and exposure to UV light. In many countries, habitual dietary intakes of vitamin D are below recommended levels, and natural sources are not consumed frequently enough to meet needs. This is especially true in northern latitudes during winter months, when sunlight is insufficient for skin synthesis of vitamin D, making dietary sources and supplements even more important Kučan2018Benedik2021Benson2021+2 MORE.
Conclusion
In summary, the main dietary sources of vitamin D are oily fish, fish liver oils, eggs, offal, and fortified foods, with mushrooms providing a valuable plant-based option when exposed to UV light. However, it is challenging to achieve adequate vitamin D intake from diet alone, so food fortification and supplementation are often necessary, especially for at-risk populations and in regions with limited sunlight. Public health strategies should continue to promote a combination of dietary diversity, food fortification, and supplementation to address vitamin D deficiency worldwide Kučan2018Benedik2021Wei2023+6 MORE.
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Sources of vitamin D for humans.
Vitamin D can be obtained through sun exposure, dietary sources, and supplements, with fortified foods and certain fish, mushrooms, and lichen being rich sources.
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