Recommended daily intake of vitamin A and carotenoids
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Recommended Daily Intake of Vitamin A: Guidelines and Units
The recommended daily intake (RDI) of vitamin A varies by age, sex, and physiological status. For adults, common recommendations are 1,000 micrograms retinol equivalents (RE) per day for men, 800 micrograms RE for non-pregnant and pregnant women, and 1,300 micrograms RE for lactating women. These values are based on studies of vitamin A depletion and repletion, and are designed to maintain optimal health and prevent deficiency symptoms such as vision problems and immune dysfunction . The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) recommends a population reference intake of 750 micrograms RE per day for adult men and 650 micrograms RE per day for adult women, with a tolerable upper intake level (UL) of 3,000 micrograms RE per day for adults to avoid toxicity Turck2024Olsen2023.
Vitamin A Sources: Preformed Vitamin A and Provitamin A Carotenoids
Vitamin A can be obtained from animal sources as preformed vitamin A (retinol) and from plant sources as provitamin A carotenoids, such as beta-carotene, alpha-carotene, and beta-cryptoxanthin. In many diets, both forms contribute to total vitamin A intake, with animal products providing preformed vitamin A and fruits and vegetables supplying carotenoids Gerster1997Durán-Cabral2017Lucarini2006+1 MORE. In Western diets, about 60–65% of vitamin A comes from preformed sources, while 35–40% comes from carotenoids Durán-Cabral2017Weber2012Beltrán-De-Miguel2015.
Carotenoids: Conversion to Vitamin A and Bioavailability
Not all carotenoids have vitamin A activity. The main provitamin A carotenoids are beta-carotene, alpha-carotene, and beta-cryptoxanthin. Beta-carotene is the most significant, accounting for the majority of provitamin A activity in the diet Durán-Cabral2017Beltrán-De-Miguel2015. However, recent research shows that the conversion of carotenoids to vitamin A is less efficient than previously thought. It is now estimated that 21 micrograms of beta-carotene from a mixed diet are needed to provide 1 microgram of retinol equivalent (RE), rather than the older estimate of 6 micrograms West2009Beltrán2012. This means that the contribution of carotenoids to vitamin A intake may be lower than previously calculated, and dietary assessments should use updated conversion factors for accuracy West2009Beltrán2012.
Meeting Vitamin A Requirements: Dietary Patterns and At-Risk Groups
Most people can meet their vitamin A requirements through a balanced diet that includes both animal and plant sources. Foods rich in preformed vitamin A include liver, dairy products, and eggs, while carrots, spinach, sweet potatoes, and other colorful fruits and vegetables are good sources of provitamin A carotenoids Borguini2020Lucarini2006Beltrán-De-Miguel2015. However, certain groups are at risk of inadequate intake, such as those with low income, restrictive diets, or limited access to diverse foods Gerster1997West2009. In some populations, especially in developing countries, vitamin A deficiency remains a significant public health concern Gerster1997Borguini2020.
Safety and Upper Intake Levels for Vitamin A and Carotenoids
Intakes up to three times the RDI (about 3,000 micrograms RE per day) are considered safe for most adults, with no unwanted side effects expected at these levels Gerster1997Turck2024. Chronic excessive intake of preformed vitamin A, especially from supplements or liver, can lead to toxicity, with teratogenic and liver effects being the most critical concerns Gerster1997Turck2024. The EFSA recommends that women who are pregnant or planning pregnancy should not exceed 3,000 micrograms RE per day and should avoid liver products . There is no evidence that dietary beta-carotene from foods causes toxicity, but high-dose supplements should be avoided, especially by smokers .
Conclusion
The recommended daily intake of vitamin A for adults generally ranges from 600 to 1,000 micrograms retinol equivalents, with an upper safe limit of 3,000 micrograms RE per day. Both preformed vitamin A from animal sources and provitamin A carotenoids from plant sources contribute to meeting these needs, but the conversion efficiency of carotenoids is lower than previously thought. A varied diet rich in both animal and plant foods is the best way to ensure adequate vitamin A intake and avoid deficiency or toxicity Gerster1997West2009Beltrán2012+7 MORE.
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Vitamin A--functions, dietary requirements and safety in humans.
Vitamin A plays a crucial role in vision, immune defense, gene regulation, and cell differentiation, with recommended intake levels varying between countries, but a daily intake of 3,000 micrograms is safe for women.
Carotenoid extraction using edible vegetable oil: an enriched provitamin A product
A simple, low-cost process using 20% dried carrot in edible vegetable oil and 5 minutes of extraction time can effectively enrich soy and olive oils with provitamin A, meeting the Recommended Daily Intake for vitamin A.
Assessment of individual carotenoid and vitamin A dietary intake in overweight and obese Dominican subjects.
Overweight and obese Dominican individuals meet recommended vitamin A intake, with 59% of intake from provitamin-A carotenoids from plant sources, mainly red/orange and white/yellow foods.
Scientific opinion on the tolerable upper intake level for preformed vitamin A and β‐carotene
The EFSA Panel recommends maintaining the tolerable upper intake level for preformed vitamin A at 3000 g RE/day for adults, with teratogenicity as the critical effect, and recommending limiting supplemental carotene intake to meet vitamin A requirements.
Intake of vitamin A and carotenoids from the Italian population--results of an Italian total diet study.
The Italian diet provides sufficient vitamin A and carotenoids, with vegetables being the main source, while leafy vegetables contribute to lutein and zeaxanthin intake.
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