Sun atmosphere

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The Sun's Atmosphere: Structure, Heating, and Earthly Impacts

Structure of the Solar Atmosphere

The Sun's atmosphere is a complex and dynamic system, divided into several distinct layers: the photosphere, chromosphere, transition region, and corona . Unlike Earth's atmosphere, which begins at a solid surface, the Sun's atmosphere lacks a clear boundary due to its gaseous nature . The photosphere is the visible surface of the Sun, characterized by granulation patterns caused by convection . Above it lies the chromosphere, a layer marked by spicules and other dynamic features 34. The transition region is a thin, irregular layer where temperatures rise dramatically, leading to the outermost layer, the corona, which is surprisingly hotter than the Sun's surface 23.

Heating Mechanisms in the Solar Atmosphere

One of the most intriguing questions in solar physics is why the Sun's corona is much hotter than its surface. Recent studies suggest that jets of plasma, known as spicules, may play a significant role in heating the corona . These jets are driven by magnetic reconnection and other dynamic processes in the lower atmosphere . Additionally, the magnetic field is crucial in transporting energy from the solar surface to the upper layers, influencing both the chromosphere and corona 45. Observations and simulations indicate that the heating mechanisms are likely universal among the Sun and Sun-like stars, driven by magnetic flux and showing power-law relations with temperature .

Solar Influences on Earth's Atmosphere

The Sun's activity significantly impacts Earth's atmosphere and climate. Solar irradiance, modulated by sunspots and the solar magnetic field, is a key driver of climate variations . Two primary mechanisms have been proposed to explain how solar irradiance affects Earth's atmosphere: the "bottom-up" mechanism, involving enhanced absorption of solar energy by the oceans, and the "top-down" mechanism, where solar UV radiation affects stratospheric ozone and large-scale circulation patterns . Additionally, solar energetic particles and galactic cosmic rays influence cloud formation and atmospheric ionization, further modulating climate .

Dynamic and Intermittent Nature of the Solar Atmosphere

The solar atmosphere is highly dynamic and intermittent, characterized by a complex interplay of convection, radiation, conduction, and magnetic fields . High-resolution observations have revealed a rich spatial structure, challenging traditional one-dimensional models . Modern three-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic simulations have provided a more accurate representation of the solar atmosphere, capturing its dynamic nature and complex magnetic interactions 68. These models have been successful in explaining many observed phenomena, although some questions remain open .

Conclusion

The Sun's atmosphere is a multifaceted and dynamic system, with distinct layers each playing a role in the overall structure and behavior. The heating of the corona, driven by magnetic processes, remains a key area of research. The Sun's activity also has profound effects on Earth's atmosphere and climate, mediated through various mechanisms involving solar irradiance and energetic particles. Advances in observational techniques and modeling have significantly enhanced our understanding, yet the Sun continues to present challenges and mysteries for scientists to unravel.

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Most relevant research papers on this topic

Solar influences on the Earth’s atmosphere: solved and unsolved questions

Solar influences on the atmosphere and climate are complex and uncertain, with two main proposed mechanisms: the "bottom-up" mechanism based on ocean absorption and the "top-down" mechanism involving stratospheric ozone and changes in large-scale circulation patterns.

2023·

4citations

·Katya Georgievaet al.

Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences

Heating the Solar Atmosphere

The question of why the Sun's outer atmosphere, or corona, is much hotter than its surface is one of the main unresolved issues in solar astrophysics. By combining measurements from NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory and the Japanese Hinode satellite, De Pontieu et al. (p. [55][1]) show that jets of

2011·

3citations

·C. Ash

Science

The Sun's Outer Atmosphere

The sun's outer atmosphere is divided into four parts, but unlike meteorologists, we have no clear base for the solar atmosphere.

1928·

0citations

·E. A. Milne

Nature

Coupling from the Photosphere to the Chromosphere and the Corona

The Sun's atmosphere is a complex, multi-scale object driven by convection, radiation, conduction, and magnetic fields, with magnetic field loops linking layers on various spatial scales.

Highly Cited

2008·

100citations

·S. Wedemeyer-Böhmet al.

Space Science Reviews

Universal Scaling Laws for Solar and Stellar Atmospheric Heating

The mechanism of atmospheric heating is universal among the Sun and Sun-like stars, regardless of age or activity, with the exponent decreasing as temperature decreases from the corona to the chromosphere.

2022·

16citations

·S. Toriumiet al.

The Astrophysical Journal

The Sun's Atmosphere

Modern advances in solar observations have led to new 3D models of the solar atmosphere, which have achieved success in explaining observations and providing a valuable test for stellar atmosphere models.

2019·

2citations

·A. Shapiroet al.

The Sun as a Guide to Stellar Physics

Hot explosions in the cool atmosphere of the Sun

The solar atmosphere is a complex, dynamic structure, with pockets of hot plasma and flares heating and accelerating plasma, requiring energy from flares for heating and acceleration.

Highly Cited

2014·

170citations

·H. Peteret al.

Science

Structure of the Solar Atmosphere: A Radio Perspective

This review provides a broader view of the solar atmosphere, enabling better understanding of solar radio emission and linking it to the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum.

2020·

11citations

·C. Alissandrakis

Irregularities in the Solar Atmosphere

VARIOUS models of the solar atmosphere have been suggested by different authors on the basis of radio and optical data. All these models indicate that both the electron density and the electron temperature therein change monotonically outwards from the surface of the Sun. The finer details of the solar atmosphere are not, however, revealed by any of these models. We therefore tried to determine the fine structure of the solar atmosphere with the help of recent radio data.

1966·

0citations

·M. Guptaet al.

Nature

The young Sun and the atmosphere and photochemistry of the early Earth

The origin and evolution of the Earth's early atmosphere depend on the dissipation time of the primitive solar nebula, SN, which is 2.5-8.3Myr, suggesting most planetary accretion must have occurred in a gas-free environment.

Highly Cited

1983·

104citations

·V. M. Canutoet al.

Nature

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