Sun's atmosphere

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Understanding the Sun's Atmosphere

Structure of the Sun's Atmosphere

The Sun's atmosphere is divided into several distinct layers: the photosphere, the chromosphere, the transition region, and the corona. Each layer has unique characteristics and plays a crucial role in the overall dynamics of the Sun.

Photosphere: The Visible Surface

The photosphere is the Sun's visible surface and the lowest layer of its atmosphere. It is characterized by a granulation pattern caused by convection currents of hot plasma rising and cooler plasma sinking . This layer is where most of the Sun's light is emitted, and it serves as the base for the layers above it.

Chromosphere: The Middle Layer

Above the photosphere lies the chromosphere, a region that exhibits a complex interplay of magnetic fields and shock waves. The chromosphere is marked by spicules, which are jet-like structures that extend upwards into the corona 13. This layer is dynamic and highly structured, with temperatures rising from about 6,000 K at the bottom to around 20,000 K at the top .

Transition Region: The Interface

The transition region is a thin, irregular layer where the temperature rises dramatically from the chromosphere to the corona. This region is crucial for understanding the energy transfer processes that heat the corona .

Corona: The Outer Atmosphere

The corona is the Sun's outermost layer, extending millions of kilometers into space. It is characterized by extremely high temperatures, reaching up to several million kelvin, and is the source of the solar wind 14. The corona's high temperature, despite its distance from the Sun's core, remains one of the major unsolved questions in solar physics .

Magnetic Fields and Solar Dynamics

The Sun's atmosphere is heavily influenced by its magnetic field, which structures and drives many of the observed phenomena. Magnetic loops, anchored in the convection zone, extend through the photosphere and into the corona, coupling the different atmospheric layers . These magnetic fields are responsible for solar flares and coronal mass ejections, which can have significant effects on space weather and Earth's atmosphere .

Heating Mechanisms

One of the most intriguing aspects of the Sun's atmosphere is the heating of the corona to temperatures much higher than the underlying photosphere. Several mechanisms have been proposed, including magnetic reconnection and wave heating. Recent observations suggest that jets and small-scale magnetic activities play a significant role in this process 7910.

Observational Advances

High-resolution observations have revolutionized our understanding of the Sun's atmosphere. Instruments like the Solar Dynamics Observatory and the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph have revealed fine structures and dynamic processes that were previously undetectable 410. These observations have led to the development of sophisticated 3D models that better represent the complex interactions within the solar atmosphere .

Conclusion

The Sun's atmosphere is a dynamic and complex system, structured by magnetic fields and characterized by extreme temperatures and energetic phenomena. Advances in observational technology and modeling have significantly enhanced our understanding, yet many questions remain, particularly regarding the mechanisms of coronal heating and the detailed dynamics of magnetic fields. Continued research in this area is essential for a deeper understanding of solar and stellar atmospheres.

Sources and full results

Most relevant research papers on this topic

The Sun's Outer Atmosphere

The sun's outer atmosphere is divided into four parts, but unlike meteorologists, we have no clear base for the solar atmosphere.

1928·

0citations

·E. A. Milne

We reside in the sun's atmosphere.

The Earth is within the solar atmosphere, but we do not feel it due to the Earth's magnetic field and atmosphere, and should not change the natural environment established by the Sun and Earth interactions.

2005·

8citations

·Y. Kamide

Coupling from the Photosphere to the Chromosphere and the Corona

The Sun's atmosphere is a complex, multi-scale object driven by convection, radiation, conduction, and magnetic fields, with magnetic field loops linking layers on various spatial scales.

Highly Cited

2008·

101citations

·S. Wedemeyer-Böhm et al.

The Sun's Atmosphere

Modern advances in solar observations have led to new 3D models of the solar atmosphere, which have achieved success in explaining observations and providing a valuable test for stellar atmosphere models.

2019·

2citations

·A. Shapiro et al.

Solar influences on the Earth’s atmosphere: solved and unsolved questions

Solar influences on the atmosphere and climate are complex and uncertain, with two main proposed mechanisms: the "bottom-up" mechanism based on ocean absorption and the "top-down" mechanism involving stratospheric ozone and changes in large-scale circulation patterns.

2023·

8citations

·Katya Georgieva et al.

Structure of the Solar Atmosphere: A Radio Perspective

This review provides a broader view of the solar atmosphere, enabling better understanding of solar radio emission and linking it to the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum.

2020·

12citations

·C. Alissandrakis

Heating the Solar Atmosphere

The question of why the Sun's outer atmosphere, or corona, is much hotter than its surface is one of the main unresolved issues in solar astrophysics. By combining measurements from NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory and the Japanese Hinode satellite, De Pontieu et al. (p. [55][1]) show that jets of

2011·

3citations

·C. Ash

The young Sun and the atmosphere and photochemistry of the early Earth

The origin and evolution of the Earth's early atmosphere depend on the dissipation time of the primitive solar nebula, SN, which is 2.5-8.3Myr, suggesting most planetary accretion must have occurred in a gas-free environment.

Highly Cited

1983·

104citations

·V. M. Canuto et al.

Universal Scaling Laws for Solar and Stellar Atmospheric Heating

The mechanism of atmospheric heating is universal among the Sun and Sun-like stars, regardless of age or activity, with the exponent decreasing as temperature decreases from the corona to the chromosphere.

2022·

18citations

·S. Toriumi et al.

Hot explosions in the cool atmosphere of the Sun

The solar atmosphere is a complex, dynamic structure, with pockets of hot plasma and flares heating and accelerating plasma, requiring energy from flares for heating and acceleration.

Highly Cited

2014·

170citations

·H. Peter et al.

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