Where does insulin come from
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Sources and Production of Insulin
Historical and Animal-Derived Insulin
Early Isolation and Animal Sources
Insulin was first isolated in 1921 and became available for clinical use shortly thereafter. Initially, commercial insulin preparations were derived from bovine and porcine pancreata. However, these animal-derived insulins have differences in amino acid sequences compared to human insulin, which can lead to the development of anti-insulin antibodies and other immunogenic responses in patients.
Human Insulin Production Methods
Extraction from Human Pancreases
One method to obtain human insulin is through extraction from the pancreases of human cadavers. This method faces significant challenges, including the limited availability of human pancreases and issues with postmortem autodigestion by enzymes from the exocrine pancreas.
Chemical Synthesis
Another approach is the full chemical synthesis of insulin. Although technically feasible, this method is not suitable for large-scale production due to low yields and high costs associated with the production of error peptides.
Enzymatic Conversion of Porcine Insulin
A more commercially viable method involves the enzymatic conversion of porcine insulin to human insulin. This process modifies the single amino acid difference between porcine and human insulin, making it a practical method for producing semi-synthetic human insulin.
Recombinant DNA Technology
The most significant advancement in insulin production is the use of recombinant DNA technology. This method involves inserting the human insulin gene into bacteria, which then produce insulin. This technique ensures an unlimited supply of insulin and has become the primary method for commercial insulin production .
Insulin Secretion and Function
Pancreatic β-Cells
Insulin is primarily secreted by β-cells in the islets of Langerhans within the pancreas. It plays a crucial role in regulating blood glucose levels by promoting glucose uptake and storage in the liver, muscles, and adipose tissue .
Insulin in the Central Nervous System
Recent studies have shown that insulin is also synthesized in the central nervous system (CNS), including regions such as the hypothalamus and hippocampus. This brain-derived insulin is involved in various functions, including neuroprotection and regulation of appetite and neuronal glucose uptake.
Advances in Insulin Research
Molecular Dynamics and Structural Studies
Research using molecular dynamics simulations has provided insights into the conformational dynamics of insulin, from its hexameric storage form to its biologically active monomeric form. These studies are crucial for understanding insulin's interaction with its receptor and for developing new insulin analogs.
Transdifferentiation of Pancreatic Cells
Innovative research has demonstrated that insulin-secreting cells can be generated from adult pancreatic acinar cells through specific culture conditions. This finding opens new avenues for diabetes treatment by potentially providing a new source of insulin-producing cells.
Conclusion
Insulin production has evolved significantly from its initial extraction from animal pancreases to advanced recombinant DNA technology. This evolution has not only ensured a stable supply of insulin but also reduced immunogenic responses in patients. Ongoing research continues to explore new methods of insulin production and its broader physiological roles, promising further advancements in diabetes treatment and management.
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