Q. Robinson, Jacob Werblow
2012
Citations
6
Influential Citations
25
Citations
Journal
American Secondary Education
Abstract
The academy has given little attention to academically successful Black males and the factors that may lead to their successes. This multiple case study design, however, examined the ways in which single-Black mothers influence the educational success of their sons by focusing on the mothers of academically successful 11th grade Black males. Data for this study came from in-person tape-recorded interviews conducted with each mother followed by a focus group. Results support the existence of common characteristics of these successful single-Black mothers and the strategies they use to help their sons beat the odds. Recommendations for school leaders are also given. Discussions in the popular media regarding the academic troubles of Black males have captured the interest of politicians and educational leaders (Brown & Davis, 2000). The resistant low overall academic performance of Black males has enticed our social and intellectual imagination. Yet, little is understood about steps that could be taken to redirect these students’ educational paths (Davis, 2003). Legislation, such as the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, requires states receiving Title I funds to test all children annually in reading and mathematics in grades three through eight and report student performance disaggregated by poverty, race and ethnicity, disability and English proficiency (U.S Department of Education, 2002). This type of testing has focused national attention on how subgroups of students are performing on accountability measures. Consequently, being Black and male in American schools still leaves one statistically at high risk for school failure (Ferguson, 2000; Polite & Davis, 1999). Why, despite the best efforts of policy makers and educators do most members of this group replay the same sad statistics of low performance year after year? Conversely, what can we learn about success from those who do succeed in spite of the statistical predictions? Can those who thrive in education, in spite of the low performance of their peers, teach us about how to help more Black males succeed? These are the questions that drive this research project. One critical variable in examining the academic performance of Black males rests with the family. A majority of Black males are now being raised by single mothers. Most mothers, married or single, play a significant role in raising their sons. According to Jackson, BrooksGunn, Huang & Glassman (2000) Black single mothers are more likely to experience stress events, making them more at risk for psychological distress, which increases the likelihood inadequate parenting. This, of course, can directly affect the educational outcomes of their sons. Understanding this dynamic could have important implications for gaining insight into how to better address educational performance for all Black males. The purpose of this study was to gain a deeper understanding of the perspectives that single Black mothers hold which help promote their son’s academic success. Theoretical Framework Urie Bronfenbrenner’s social-ecological theory of social development (1979; 1986; 1989; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998) is the primary theoretical framework for this study. Bronfenbrenner’s theory consists of five interconnected “environmental” systems that range from the individual within close interpersonal interactions, to the broad influences of institutions and cultures. There are three important explicit assumptions within the ecological model. First, it assumes that the individual, and the individual’s environment, are continually interacting and exerting mutual influence. As a result, things are constantly changing in small ways that may seem unimportant but may influence other factors in an individual’s life. Second, it is assumed that the individual is an active participant in the change process. The individual is acted upon by the environment but also has the potential to exert influence and power within the environment. Third, Bronfenbrenner’s model is bidirectional. That is, changes in the ecological system may influence changes that have varying effects on the individual. At any given time, any part of the system may act as a support for educational goals, or may act as a barrier. Single Mothers of African-American Sons According to U.S. Census data, in 1970, 65% of Black families had two parents. By 1990, the numbers had fallen, leaving only 39% of Black families headed by two parents. Recent Census Bureau figures reveal that the percentage had fallen even further by the mid-1990s (Hrabowski III, Maton & Greif, 1998). As a result, the care of Black sons has been laid at the feet of their mothers. According to Stevenson, Chen and Uttal (1990) most Black mothers value their children’s education, and they encourage them to do well in school. However, too often they bear a disproportionate level of criticism when things go wrong (Brown & Davis, 2000). No-Nonsense Parenting Black Mothers seem to demonstrate a more authoritarian style of parenting. Some evidence suggests that this is influenced by religion. Brody and Flor (1998) tested a family process model that linked maternal education, maternal religiosity, and the adequacy of family financial resources and psychosocial competence in the mothers’ children. The sample included 156 6-to-9-year-old African American children living in single-mother-headed households in a rural area. It was concluded that greater maternal religiosity was related to more use of “no nonsense” parenting practice, higher mother-child relationship quality, and more maternal involvement in the child’s schooling. This finding supports the belief that African Americans’ religious involvement can promote supportive and responsive family relationships, which in turn help the family cope with economic and social stressors that accompany life. Some Black mothers believe that schools do not reflect their concerns regarding education. Over the years these mothers worked hard to elevate the quality of education for their sons in spite of numerous obstacles (Moles, 1987). Nevertheless, it has been argued that single Black mothers are less effective in influencing their son’s academic success than White mothers (Coley, 1998). According to Duncan, (2002) single Black mothers have much to offer educators; however, they have fewer opportunities to get involved at school because of their lack of understanding about how the educational system works (Hunter et al., 2006). Mothers’ Perceptions Collins (2000) argues that Black women develop a “unique” vision of the school world based on their perceived low social position within a matrix of social domination that puts them at the center of intersecting oppressions of race, class and gender. She argues that the oppression is expressed by society structurally (as in mostly white schools built on mostly white educational values), disciplinarily (where tests are used that point to the individual with low scores as the “failure”), hegemonically (believing that society and its schools have the right to do this), and interpersonally (through interactions that suggest that one does not have to treat people “at the bottom” with respect while oppressing them). Moles (1987) explained that single mothers have the same interest and willingness as married parents to help their children with their educational needs, and they can spend a great deal of time helping them at home. Research has shown that the mother’s responsive behavior towards her child’s education is a relatively strong intermediary between the mother’s expectations and her child’s academic performance (Jackson & Remillard, 2005; Seginer, 1986). African-American male students face challenges unique to them as students in U.S. schools at all levels of schooling, by virtue of their social and cultural identity as AfricanAmericans and because of the ways that identity can be a driving force of devaluation in contemporary American society (Perry et al, 2003). The evidence is mixed as to whether general societal racism, inadequate or inappropriate public education policy or school settings, lack of understanding or skills in teachers, poor parenting skills, or lower individual skills of students who are African-American males, is the primary “reason” for general poor performance. However, that all bits of evidence exist to some degree suggests what might be a generally unsupportive life environment for Black students. Purpose of the Current Study The purpose of this study was to gain a deeper understanding of the relationship Black mothers share with their sons and how these relationships influence the educational success of their sons. Specifically, we wanted a better understanding of the ways Black mothers put the needs of their sons first and what influencing factors drove these mothers to want academic and social excellence for their sons. Our aim was also to study how these mothers, with limited knowledge and skills at navigating their way through the educational system, learned what they needed to learn so they could serve as “agents” on their sons’ behalf. Since most prior research on this topic has argued that single Black mothers have a negative influence on their sons, our goal in designing and conducting this study was to explore how some Black males succeed despite the odds. By better understanding how success occur, we might be able to more objectively address how societal and institutionalized racist expectations for Black males can be reduced so more young men can succeed academically. Using Bronfenbrenner’s theoretical framework, the following research questions are derived from our review of the literature: 1) In what ways do single Black mothers attempt to influence the educational success of their academically successful sons? 2) What procedures and practices do single Black mothers use to navigate the educational success of their academically successful sons? Methods Participants This multiple c