What is Choline?
This post was written with Consensus AI Academic Search Engine – please read our Disclaimer at the end of this article. Choline is a vital nutrient that plays a crucial role in various physiological processes in the human body. Despite its importance, it is often overlooked in discussions about essential nutrients. This article delves into the significance of choline, its functions, dietary sources, and the implications of choline deficiency. Other names include: Bitartre de Choline, Chlorure de Choline, Choline Bitartrate, Choline Chloride, Choline Citrate, Citrate de Choline, Colina, Facteur Lipotropique, Hydroxyde de Triméthylammonium (bêta-hydroxyéthyl), Intrachol, L-Choline, Lipotropic Factor, Methylated Phosphatidylethanolamine, Trimethylethanolamine, Triméthyléthanolamine, (beta-hydroxyethyl) Trimethylammonium hydroxide.
Functions of Choline
Choline is indispensable for several critical functions in the body:
Membrane Phospholipids
Choline is required to synthesize essential membrane phospholipids, which are fundamental components of cell membranes. These phospholipids help maintain the structural integrity and functionality of cells1 2.
Neurotransmitter Synthesis
Choline serves as a precursor for the biosynthesis of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter involved in many functions, including muscle control, memory, and mood regulation1 2.
Methyl Group Donor
Choline is an important source of labile methyl groups, which are necessary for various methylation reactions in the body. These reactions are crucial for DNA synthesis and repair, as well as gene expression1 2.
Dietary Sources of Choline
Choline can be obtained from various dietary sources, including:
- Eggs: One of the richest sources of choline.
- Meat and Fish: Particularly liver and muscle meats.
- Dairy Products: Milk and cheese.
- Vegetables: Especially cruciferous vegetables like broccoli and Brussels sprouts.
- Legumes and Nuts: Such as soybeans and peanuts.
Choline Deficiency
Choline deficiency can lead to several health issues, particularly affecting liver function and lipid metabolism:
Liver Dysfunction
Mammals fed a choline-deficient diet develop liver dysfunction. In humans, a choline-deficient diet can lead to depleted stores of choline in tissues and signs of incipient liver dysfunction, such as increased serum alanine aminotransferase activity and decreased plasma choline and phosphatidylcholine concentrations1 2.
Lipid Metabolism
Choline is crucial for lipid metabolism. In laying hens, dietary choline supplementation has been shown to regulate lipid profiles in egg yolk, blood, and liver, and improve hepatic redox status6. In humans, choline intake influences lipid profiles and can affect the concentrations of choline metabolites in breast milk and plasma7.
Genetic and Hormonal Influences
The dietary requirements for choline can be influenced by genetic polymorphisms and hormonal changes:
Genetic Polymorphisms
Common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) can alter dietary requirements for choline intake. For instance, SNPs in the PEMT gene can increase the risk of organ dysfunction in response to a low-choline diet5 7.
Hormonal Changes
Estrogen induces the enzyme phosphatidylethanolamine-N-methyltransferase (PEMT), which is involved in choline metabolism. Postmenopausal women, who have lower estrogen levels, are more susceptible to choline deficiency and may require higher dietary choline intake5.
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Adverse Effects of Choline
Fishy Body Odor: Choline supplementation can cause a fishy body odor, which was the only adverse event consistently reported in studies involving children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs) and pregnant women2 3 9.
Potential Negative Impact on Immediate Memory Recall: In a study on children with FASDs, there was a trend toward a negative effect of choline supplementation on immediate recall of ordered pairs, suggesting that choline might impair certain aspects of memory performance in specific contexts2.
Nausea/Dyspepsia: A small increase in nausea and dyspepsia was reported among heavy drinking pregnant women who received choline supplementation, although no other significant side effects like diarrhea, vomiting, muscle stiffness, or blood pressure changes were observed9.
Differential Effects on DNA Methylation: Choline supplementation has been shown to cause changes in global DNA methylation patterns in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of rats, with different effects depending on the initial state of the brain. This suggests that choline can have complex and potentially adverse epigenetic effects7.
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How has Choline Improved Patient Outcomes?
Improvement in Cognitive Function in FASD Children
Choline supplementation has shown potential in improving memory and cognitive function in children with FASDs, particularly in younger children aged 2.5 to 4 years1 2. Genetic polymorphisms affecting choline utilization may also influence the degree of cognitive improvement2.
Lack of Significant Improvement in Older FASD Children
In school-aged children (5-10 years) with FASDs, choline supplementation did not result in significant cognitive improvements compared to a placebo3.
Neuroprotective Effects in Prenatal Alcohol Exposure
Maternal choline supplementation during pregnancy mitigated the adverse effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on neonatal brain volumes, which was associated with improved recognition memory in infants7.
Cognitive and Motor Performance in Healthy Adults
Chronic choline administration in healthy adult rats improved cognitive and locomotor performance, reduced oxidative stress, and enhanced cholinergic and monoaminergic neurotransmission4.
Memory Improvement in TPN Patients
In patients requiring long-term total parenteral nutrition (TPN), choline supplementation improved verbal and visual memory5.
Improved Outcomes in Acute Cerebral Infarction
Choline precursor (CDP-choline) treatment in patients with acute cerebral infarction led to significant improvements in consciousness levels compared to placebo6.
Cardiac Arrest Outcomes
In a rat model, CDP-choline improved the rate of return of spontaneous circulation and did not increase myocardial injury severity compared to epinephrine8.
Potential Benefits in Bipolar Disorder
In patients with rapid-cycling bipolar disorder, oral choline supplementation resulted in a significant decrease in brain purine levels, which may be related to its anti-manic effects10.
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Choline Mechanisms of Action
Antioxidant and Anti-apoptotic Effects
Choline attenuates oxidative stress and apoptosis in bovine mammary epithelial cells by modulating the PERK/Nrf-2 signaling pathway, reducing ROS accumulation, and enhancing antioxidant enzyme activities1.
Choline supplementation in laying hens reduces hepatic oxidative stress and improves liver health by increasing tocopherol concentrations and reducing lipid peroxidation8.
Neuroprotection and Cognitive Function
CDP-choline (a choline derivative) promotes nerve regeneration and reduces scarring in rat sciatic nerve injury by modulating matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity and increasing tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs)2.
Choline improves cognitive function and reduces neuroinflammation in mice by antagonizing LPS-induced hippocampal p38 MAPK phosphorylation via the α7nAchR signaling pathway4.
CDP-choline enhances cognitive processes in humans by modulating brain oscillations, likely through increased acetylcholine synthesis and nicotinic receptor stimulation5.
Gut Microbiome and Intestinal Health
Choline supplementation increases gut microbiome diversity and promotes gut epithelial cell proliferation while inhibiting apoptosis, which may contribute to improved intestinal health and function3.
Lipid Metabolism and Hepatic Health
Choline prevents PFOS-induced hepatic steatosis and oxidative stress by maintaining choline availability for hepatic VLDL production and export6.
Maternal choline supplementation modulates placental nutrient transport and metabolism, enhancing fetal nutrient supply and development7.
Immune System Development
Choline in the form of phosphatidylcholine (PC) enhances immune function in rat offspring by promoting the maturation and activity of immune cells9.
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Common Complaints Associated with Choline Use
Lack of Cognitive Improvement in Children with FASDs
Choline supplementation at a dose of 625 mg/day for 6 weeks did not result in significant cognitive improvements in memory, executive function, or attention in school-aged children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs)1.
Behavioral Improvements in Animal Models
In neonatal rats exposed to alcohol, choline supplementation reduced hyperactivity and improved performance on learning tasks, indicating potential long-lasting benefits of early dietary interventions2.
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Disclaimer
The content presented in this blog is generated by Consensus, an AI-powered academic search engine, and is based on publicly available scientific literature. While every effort is made to provide accurate, up-to-date, and well-researched information, the content is intended for informational and educational purposes only. It does not constitute medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always consult a qualified healthcare professional before making any decisions regarding medical conditions, treatments, or medications. The AI system’s analysis may not cover all perspectives, emerging research, or individual cases, and it is not a substitute for professional expertise. Neither the blog publisher nor the developers of the AI-powered search engine are responsible for any actions taken based on the information provided in this content. Use of this information is at your own risk. Citations to the original scientific studies are included for reference, but these studies should be reviewed in full and interpreted with the guidance of a healthcare or research professional.
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