R. Reid, A. Trout, Michalla Schartz
Jun 1, 2005
Citations
21
Influential Citations
356
Citations
Quality indicators
Journal
Exceptional Children
Abstract
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a chronic disorder that is thought to affect from 3% to 7% of school-age children (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Children with ADHD typically exhibit problems maintaining attention, sustaining effort, modulating motor activity, and organizing and finishing tasks (American Psychiatric Association). In addition, they often exhibit comorbid behaviors such as depression, anxiety, oppositional defiant disorders, and compulsive behaviors (National Institute of Mental Health, 1996; Whalen & Henker, 1991). As a result, many children with ADHD encounter difficulties in the school environment, often in the form of disciplinary problems or academic difficulties (e.g., underachievement, poor grades, or failure to complete assignments; DuPaul & Stoner, 2003). At present, the recommended treatment for children with ADHD involves a multimodal approach that combines medication (e.g., psychostimulants), behavior modification, accommodations, and ancillary services (e.g., counseling; Barkley, 1998; Reid, 1999). Of these approaches, probably the most well known and widely used is medication (Goldman, Genel, Bezman, & Slanetz, 1998). Although the use of medication for the treatment of symptoms for ADHD has a documented record of effectiveness (MTA Cooperative Group, 1999), it is not recommended in isolation. There is evidence that other approaches (e.g., behavior management, educational accommodations) are useful both in isolation and in conjunction with medication (Conners et al., 2001; Pfiffner & Barkley, 1998). One type of intervention that holds promise for children with ADHD is one that can help children self-regulate their behavior. Self-regulation describes a number of methods used by students to manage, monitor, record, and/or assess their behavior or academic achievement. Self-regulation can be used to decrease maladaptive or increase positive target behaviors (Kern, Ringdahl, Hilt, & Sterling-Turner, 2001) and has shown considerable success with children with learning disabilities (e.g., Graham & Harris, 2003; Reid, 1996), behavior disorders (e.g., Nelson, Smith, Young, & Dodd, 1991; Smith & Sugai, 2000), and mental retardation (e.g., Cole & Gardner, 1984). Recently, Strayhorn (2002) argued that there is a need to develop systematic programs to enable self-regulated behavior among children with ADHD. This is consistent with recent theoretical work in ADHD that has begun to conceptualize ADHD as a deficit in self-regulated behavior (Barkley, 1997). From this perspective, ADHD results from a performance deficit rather than a skill deficit. In other words, ADHD is "not a disorder of knowing what to do, but of doing what one knows" (Barkley, 1998, p. 249). One important component of self-regulation is a conscious appraisal of immediate past behavior (Barkley, 1997). This information allows individuals to assess past behavior and, if necessary, change their pattern of responding (i.e., inhibit an automatic response). The feedback enables a comparison between what the child is doing and what the child should be doing, which in turn serves as a cue to maintain appropriate behavior or change inappropriate behavior. Ensuring a steady stream of feedback is important. As Barkley (1998) noted, one critical factor in self-regulation for children with ADHD is "more feedback more often" (p. 250). Self-regulation theory has long recognized the importance of a feedback cycle in which individuals systematically self-assess and self-evaluate their behavior (Pintrich, 2000; Zimmerman, 2000). These processes are seen as fundamental to the development of self-regulation. A discussion of the four common forms of self-regulation that incorporate these processes follow. SELF-MONITORING Self-monitoring (SM) is a multistage process of observing and recording one's behavior (Mace, Belfiore, & Hutchinson, 2001). …