What Is Soy? Other Names: Cosse de Soja, Daidzein, Glycine max

What is Soy?

This post was written with Consensus AI Academic Search Engine – please read our Disclaimer at the end of this article. Soy, scientifically known as Glycine max, is a legume that is extensively cultivated around the world. It is renowned for its seeds, which are rich in oil and protein, making it a valuable crop for both human and animal nutrition. Additionally, soy is utilized as a biofuel source, further enhancing its economic importance. Other names include: Cosse de Soja, Cosse de Soya, Daidzein, Daidzéine, Dolichos soja, Edamame, Estrogène Végétal, Fermented Soy, Fève de Soja, Fève de Soya, Fibre de Soja, Fibre de Soya, Frijol de Soya, Genestein, Genistein, Génistéine, Glycine gracilis, Glycine hispida, Glycine max, Glycine soja, Haba Soya, Haricot de Soja, Haricot de Soya, Hydrolyzed Soy Protein, Isoflavone, Isoflavone de Soja, Isoflavone de Soya, Isolated Soy Protein, Isolated Soybean Protein, Lait de Soja, Lait de Soya, Legume, Miso, Natto, Phaseolus max, Phytoestrogen, Phyto-œstrogène, Plant Estrogen, Protéine de Haricot de Soja Isolée, Protéine de Haricot de Soya Isolée, Protéine de Soja, Protéine de Soya, Protéine de Soja Isolée, Protéine de Soya Isolée, Shoyu, Soja, Soja hispida, Soja max, Sojabohne, Soy Bean, Soy Fiber, Soy Germ, Soy Isoflavone, Soy Isoflavones, Soy Milk, Soy Polysaccharide, Soy Protein, Soy Protein Isolate, Soya, Soya Bean, Soja Fermenté, Soya Fermenté, Soybean, Soybean Curd, Soybean Isoflavone, Soybean Isoflavones, Tempeh, Texturized Vegetable Protein, Tofu, Touchi.

Nutritional and Economic Importance

Soybean seeds are a powerhouse of nutrition, containing high levels of protein and oil. This makes them an essential component in the diets of both humans and animals. The protein content in soybeans is particularly significant, as it provides a plant-based alternative to animal proteins, which is crucial for vegetarian and vegan diets. Moreover, the oil extracted from soybeans is used in various culinary applications and as a raw material in the production of biodiesel, contributing to renewable energy sources1 2.

Challenges in Soy Cultivation

One of the primary challenges in soybean cultivation is soil salinity. It is estimated that around 800 million hectares of agricultural land worldwide are affected by salt stress, which significantly limits crop production. Salt stress impacts various physiological, biochemical, and morphological aspects of soybean plants, leading to reduced growth and yield1 2.

Effects of Salt Stress on Soybean Plants

Research has shown that soybean plants subjected to different levels of salt stress exhibit several negative effects. For instance, plants exposed to Na+ concentrations ranging from 50 to 200 mM show reductions in essential nutrients such as potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg). These reductions are accompanied by detrimental effects on the photosynthetic machinery, gas exchange, and photosynthetic pigments, primarily due to oxidative stress induced by saline conditions1.

Anatomical Adaptations

Soybean plants also undergo anatomical changes in response to salt stress. Studies have revealed that at Na+ concentrations up to 100 mM, there is an increase in the deposition of epicuticular wax, changes in the quantity and shape of stomata, and an increase in the thickness of the leaf epidermis. These adaptations help the plant mitigate the adverse effects of salt stress1.

In the roots and stems, progressive salt stress leads to increases in the epidermis and endodermis, and the formation of lysogenic aerenchyma, which play protective roles in reducing Na+ influx. Additionally, increases in the cortex and pith in the stem’s first internode suggest anatomical responses aimed at minimizing oxidative stress. These changes help the plant avoid cavitation and maintain the functionality of vessel elements, which is crucial for water and nutrient transport2.

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Uses of Soy

Food and Nutrition

Cardiovascular Health: Soy consumption is associated with reduced risk of cardiovascular disease. Soy nuts, for example, can improve arterial stiffness in adults at cardiometabolic risk2. Soy protein can also reduce serum LDL cholesterol and improve the LDL:HDL cholesterol ratio in adults with type 2 diabetes4.

Bone Health: Soy protein and isoflavones have been shown to improve bone health by reducing bone loss and increasing bone mineral density (BMD) in postmenopausal women and animal models3 7 9.

Skin Health: Soy protein containing isoflavones can improve skin hydration and reduce signs of photoaging, such as wrinkles and dyspigmentation, in postmenopausal women5.

Reproductive Health: Soy isoflavones can enhance reproductive performance and serum antioxidant status in sows, as well as improve the growth performance of their offspring6.

Industrial Applications

Agriculture: Soybean is a significant crop in agriculture, with its cultivation being influenced by various fertilization methods to improve agronomic and quality characteristics1.

Feed

Animal Feed: Soy is a crucial component in animal feed, providing essential nutrients that support the growth and health of livestock1.

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Adverse Effects of Soy

Cardiovascular and Endothelial Function

Endothelial Function Decline: In men, soy consumption was associated with a decline in endothelial function, which is crucial for vascular health1.

Increase in Lp(a) Lipoprotein: Soy intake led to an increase in Lp(a) lipoprotein, which is a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases1.

Reproductive Health

Uterine Effects: In premenopausal rats, high soy and isoflavone diets caused extensive squamous metaplasia in the uterine gland, indicating potential adverse effects on the uterus2.

Implantation Losses: Soy isoflavones reduced implantation rates in pregnant rats, likely due to the downregulation of progesterone receptors and decreased vascular endothelial growth factor production4.

Uterine Dysfunction: Soy protein concentrate was found to ameliorate sodium fluoride-induced uterine dysfunction, but the initial exposure to soy could still pose risks8.

Cancer Concerns

Breast Cancer Gene Expression: Soy intake in women with early-stage breast cancer altered the expression of genes related to cell proliferation, raising concerns about its potential to adversely affect breast cancer progression3.

Mammary Tumors in Obese Rats: In an obese rat model, a high soy protein diet increased the incidence of mammary tumors, suggesting a potential risk for breast cancer development in obese individuals9.

Hormonal Effects

Thyroid Function: Soy isoflavones increased thyrotropin (TSH) levels and reduced free thyroxine (fT4), indicating a potential adverse effect on thyroid function10.

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How has Soy Improved Patient Outcomes?

HIV Patients

Lean Body Mass and Strength: Soy protein supplementation in HIV patients starting antiretroviral treatment (ART) increased lean body mass by 0.97 kg and grip strength by 0.93 kg compared to controls1.

Weight Gain: Total weight gain was 2.06 kg more in the soy group compared to controls1.

Hematologic Malignancies

Hematopoiesis and Immune Reconstitution: In a mouse model, soy-whey protein supplementation promoted hematopoietic stem cell engraftment, body weight recovery, and immune reconstitution2.

Hemodialysis Patients

Inflammation and Physical Function: Soy protein supplementation reduced inflammation markers (interleukin 6) and improved physical function (gait speed and shuttle walk test) in maintenance hemodialysis patients3.

Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD)

Metabolic Parameters: Soy milk consumption significantly reduced serum insulin, HOMA-IR, and blood pressure, and increased QUICKI in patients with NAFLD4.

Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Nephropathy

Renal Function and Lipid Profile: Isolated soy protein consumption reduced urinary albumin excretion and improved serum lipid profiles in diabetic patients with nephropathy7.

Cardiovascular Risk: Soy protein with isoflavones improved glycemic control, reduced triglycerides, C-reactive protein, and diastolic blood pressure, and improved endothelial function5.

Peritoneal Dialysis Patients

Coagulation Factors: Soy consumption reduced plasma coagulation factor IX activity, which is a risk factor for thrombosis in peritoneal dialysis patients6.

Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)

Adiponectin Levels: Soy protein intake significantly increased adiponectin levels in CKD patients, which is beneficial for metabolic health9.

Stroke Rehabilitation

Functional Outcomes: Soymilk ingestion immediately after therapeutic exercise improved hand grip strength, walking speed, exercise endurance, and muscle functionality in chronic stroke patients10.

Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)

Nutritional Status and Anemia: Soy nut intake improved nutritional status, anemia, and fatigue in children with ALL undergoing chemotherapy8.

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Soy Mechanisms of Action

Regulation of Inflammatory Pathways

NF-κB Pathway Inhibition: Soy protein can inhibit the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathway, which is crucial in the development of metabolic syndrome and inflammation. This inhibition helps reduce insulin resistance, serum glucose, and free fatty acids, thereby improving metabolic and inflammatory conditions1.

Thyroid Function Modulation

Isoflavones and Thyroid Hormones: Soy isoflavones can transiently increase reverse T3 (rT3) levels and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) while decreasing free thyroxine (fT4) levels. This suggests a temporary impairment of thyroid function, likely through the inhibition of deiodinase enzymes that regulate thyroid hormone metabolism2 8.

Immune Response Regulation

PI3K/Akt/mTOR Pathway: Soy glycinin can modulate the immune response by affecting the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway. Low doses improve immune function by increasing IFN-γ secretion, while high doses can cause inflammation, which can be mitigated by sodium butyrate3.

TLR-MyD88-NF-κB Signaling: Soy protein can induce enteritis through the TLR-MyD88-NF-κB signaling pathway, with different TLR receptors being activated depending on the type of soy protein consumed9.

Lipid Metabolism and Insulin Sensitivity

AMPK/mTOR Pathway: Soy protein improves insulin resistance and lipid metabolism by regulating the AMPK/mTOR pathway. This includes increasing the expression of genes involved in glucose uptake and lipid metabolism while decreasing those involved in lipid synthesis7.

Antioxidant Effects

Reduction of Lipid Peroxidation: Soy isoflavones, particularly genistein and daidzein, reduce oxidative damage to lipids, lower F(2)-isoprostane concentrations, and increase the resistance of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) to oxidation. This antioxidant action may reduce the risk of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases10.

Hormonal Effects

Endogenous Hormones: Long-term ingestion of soy protein can slightly affect thyroid hormone levels but does not significantly alter steroid hormone values. This suggests minor effects on thyroid function without major clinical implications8.

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Common Complaints Associated with Soy Use

Growth Parameters: The study found no significant differences in height and BMI z scores between children who consumed soy-based formula and those who did not. Both groups had comparable growth metrics, indicating that soy-based formula does not adversely affect growth1.

Early Pubertal Signs: There was no significant association between the consumption of soy-based formula during infancy and the early onset of puberty. The incidence of early pubertal signs was similar between the soy-fed group and the control group, suggesting that soy does not influence early puberty1.

Nutritional Intake: The study also evaluated current daily consumption of soy, micronutrients, energy, carbohydrates, fat, and protein, finding no differences between the groups. This indicates that soy consumption does not lead to nutritional imbalances1.

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